论中国古代“情判”司法传统

张福坤


摘要：“情判”是中国传统诉讼中极具特色而又颇为重要的一种特殊现象。由于“情判”的灵活与变通，从而能在某种程度上实现公平正义，由此达到儒家倡导的和谐与无诉的理想目标。因此，“情判”在中国古代适用极为广泛，得到了无论官方还是民间的广泛认可，其实效也得到了充分发挥，并在很大程度上影响着中国传统诉讼实践。文章试从“情判”发展的历史脉络、“情判”心态模式、审判依据与判决内容、“情判”司法案例与实践、现代意义五部分对这一传统加以论述，以阐述在中国传统文化背景下所产生的这种审判制度的大致轮廓及其现实意义。

关键词：古代；情判；司法传统；现代意义


　　“情判”是中国传统诉讼中极具特色而又颇为重要的一种特殊现象。是在中国传统文化背景下所产生的一种具有中国特色的审判制度。笔者认为在既有的关于中国传统诉讼审判中国家的诉讼制度的同时，应该对于制度背后的观念性的文化的东西加以关注。无疑，中国传统诉讼审判中，“情”的作用是不容忽视的，因为它与中国传统的情理社会相契合。因此，对“情判”的研究具有重要的意义。

一、“情判”发展的历史脉络

　　“情”对于立法的影响可以追溯到夏商周三代。先秦时期，社会的形态均是家国一体或者可以说家国同构，家就是国的缩影。血缘关系在这个时期的整个社会关系中处于至关重要的地位，这一时期是典型的宗法社会，其法律制度中亲情伦理色彩极为浓重。到了秦朝，秦始皇采用法家思想建立了高度中央集权王朝，实行“任法而治”，但是秦朝的法律制度中仍能够看见血缘亲情的因子。汉代秦后，尤其汉武帝“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”以来，儒家思想和学说被确立为正统思想，从而拉开了中国古代法律儒家化的序幕。汉代法律儒家化的表现主要是在立法上的“引礼入律”，和司法上的“春秋决狱”。也就是在西汉的中叶，以董仲舒“春秋决狱”为标志，“情判”在古代司法实践中亦悄然兴起，并逐渐成为一股潮流。值得提一下的是“春秋决狱”，所谓“春秋决狱”即在依律断案之外，还根据儒家经典，尤其是《春秋》的“微言大义”来决断案件。董仲舒曾依据春秋经义作《春秋决狱》232事。“春秋决狱”的依据来自儒家经义，如《易》、《诗》、《书》、《礼》、《乐》、《春秋》。儒家经义可以追溯到西周时的礼治，礼治发展到汉朝，董仲舒据此提出了“三纲”思想，这“三纲”中由“父为子纲”引申出来的“孝”成为实质上的核心，而“孝”讲究的则是人伦情感，据“孝”断案实际上就是据“情”断案。历史的车轮滑到唐朝，“一准乎礼”的唐律的制定和实施标志着中国法律儒家化的完成，同时也标志着“情”对法律的作用得到最终承认。宋朝是中国传统“情判”发展的一个重要时期，此时情理已经深入人心，并在司法实践中被广泛运用。除《宋史》外，尤其突出的是《明公书判清明集》中记载了大量案例，均体现了法判向情判的偏转。此后，元明清各朝法律基本沿袭唐律精神。

二、“情判”司法传统之心态模式

（一）“情判”的思想基础

　　“情判”的思想基础主要来源于儒家学说。“情判”的核心在于一个“情”字，即审判的判决依据来自情或情理。中国传统诉讼指导思想总体上说是以儒家思想为主体的，儒家思想的起点和出发点在于情，而其最终的落脚点也在于情。儒家思想与情的内在联系可以通过几个方面来体现。首先是“礼”，礼在中国古代无所不包，有人说“礼源于情感又出自理性。”《礼记•礼运》称：“故圣人之所以治人七情，修十义，讲信修睦，尚辞让，去争夺，舍礼何以治之？”这说明了礼自情出。其次是“仁”，儒家思想的根本内容在于关于“任”的学说，在孔子的“仁学”中，以仁释礼，礼以仁为指导思想，仁是礼的内在精神。“仁”是一个兼涵恭、宽、信、敏、惠、勇、敬、忠、智诸德的总的道德规范，不是仅指一种特定的品德，而是泛指人的所有德性。（P40）孔子的“仁学”思想中蕴含着浓厚的情感因素，对此“《论语》中虽然没有明确提出‘情’观念，但‘仁’字却出现了一百零五次之多。孟子曰：‘仁，人心也。’其实是一种合乎礼仪，而发于中节的情感。这种情感与生俱来……“孝”是子女对父母应有之情，“悌”是对兄弟同辈应有之情，“忠”是对长上君国应有之情，“礼”则是表达情感的方式，……”(P42)这一评述恰如其分的说明了孔子以人伦情感为核心的仁学思想对儒家思想及中国传统文化的广泛影响。
（二）“情判”的民众心态
　　人情是人们社会生活中普遍存在的一种心理，对于人情之重要意义，那是每一个中国人所心领神会的。在古代的中国，人情在社会生活中占据重要位置，以至成为建构和维系社会关系的基础。尤其是在中国乡土社会，由于人们生于斯，长于斯，老于斯和终于斯，不但己生，而且子孙后代都会与左邻右舍建立各种各样的人情关系乃至拟制的血缘关系。彼此称呼爷奶、叔伯、兄弟姐妹……都是中国人试图用人情来维系社会关系的表征。(P23)人情交往的基本准则便是“一礼还一礼”，就是一个“报”字。杨联?先生在《报——中国社会关系的基础》一文指出：“报”是中国社会关系的基础。就人情与王法的关系而言，在中国传统法律观念中“人情大于王法”，法律来自人情，以人情为源泉；就法律与人情的效力而言，也是突出人情的支配地位。在民众的眼里，人情就是最高的法律。程汉大教授也指出“在乡民的心目中，人情比圣旨和法律都大，这里的人情可以理解为‘伦理’、‘习惯’或‘风俗’。可见，中国乡民也有朦胧的‘自然法’意识。”具体到案件的诉讼中，民众打官司只有通过带着情感诉说冤情，伸冤话语用情感来修辞，才能迎合儒吏之同情，才能胜诉。
（三）“情判”的儒吏心态
　　孔子认为对法律的制定和运用必须以礼为指导，要求司法官在审理案件的过程中，用儒家经义作为分析案情，认定犯罪的理论依据，并按经义的精神解释和适用法律。汉代董仲舒也认为断狱应“原心定罪”，“必本其事而原其志”。明代丘浚也指出：“吏胥不通经，不可以掌律令。”当礼义与法律发生矛盾时，要据礼义原则处理，即情理原则。可见，情理原则之所以进入司法实践，成为裁判必须考量的重要因素，与儒家思想和传统是分不开的。
　　司法官员对于自己审案的要求就是，须用“哀矜之心折狱”，要用同情之心来审案，了解案情事实，这种同情心是与儒家“恻隐之心”相吻合的。司法官所作判决不仅要做到案情事实合法，而且要合乎人们的常情和常理。同时，司法官往往以“青天父母”自居，他们为民众的“父母官”，要“为民父母行政”，他们在执法的过程中绝对不会排斥情理，因为他们的最终目的就是试图折中天理、国法、人情三者之统一，追求具体正义，即具体案件处理的合情合理性。

三、“情判”依据与内容

（一）“情判”的依据
　　天理，即天下公认的大道理，天经地义。在古人的世界观中，天占据及其重要的位置，是万物的主宰。人们认为天的运行是有规律的，此规律即为“天道”，人们的世俗生活应当顺乎“天道”。春秋之际就有“法天而行”，“道法自然”的思想，“先王以承天之道，以治人之情。” 董仲舒也说“法天而立道”。宋明之后，天的运行规律被称作“天理”，世俗生活中的道德、法律也被称作“天理”。天理作为一种审判原则存在于传统法制之中。
　　人情，是人们在社会生活中普遍存在的一种心理，它泛指诸如情面、面子、处事习惯、情感认同等等内容。中国传统语境中“情”的基本含义就是指人与人的感情联结。因为中国古代社会的情感结构是一种亲情、熟人结构。“我们的格局不是一捆一捆扎清楚地柴，而是好像把一块石头丢在水面上所发生的一圈圈推出去的波纹。每个人都是他社会影响所推出去的圈子的中心。”(P23)儒家以“父慈子孝”为出发点，并提出相应的行为要求，即“父子有亲，君臣有义，夫妇有别，长幼有序，朋友有信。”  “父慈、子孝、兄良、弟悌、夫义、妇听、长惠、幼顺、君仁、臣忠。” 由此，“五伦十义”成为中国古代社会最重要的“人情”。之后到汉代演变为“三纲五常”成为最高的道德准则。
　　国法，即王者的法，国家的法，官府的法。国家是什么？国家为什么？国家干什么？国家当如何？对这一系列问题的思考和回答，就构成了中国古代的国家观念或国家理念。一个国家要有效运行，实现统治就必须有国法。所谓“家有家规，国有国法”，这是经常听到的一句俗语。这句话里正蕴藏着一个十分有古代中国特色的观念：国法有如家规、家法，是“家长” (皇帝)用来管教“不肖子孙” (不轨臣民)的。很明显，家法不是家长与子弟妇安奴仆协商制订的，而是家长一人的杰作。故家法即“家长之法”；同样，国法不是国君与臣民协商的产物，而是“圣心”、 “圣制”、 “圣裁”的产物，故国法就是“王法”。国法正是国家得以运行的保障。
　　中国古代社会司法审判力求法与情之间的兼顾和平衡。管子主张“令顺民心”，就是指立法要合乎人之常情。“人主之所以令行禁止者，必令于民所好而禁于民之所恶。”《名公书判清明集》也说“法意、人情实通一体。循人情而违法意，不可也；守法意而拂人情，亦不可也。权衡二者之间，使上不违于法意，下不拂于人情，则通行而无弊矣。”(P311)但是，当法律与人情发生冲突或者法无明文规定时，司法官往往弃法顺情。《慎子•因循》中也说：“天道”就存于“人情”之中，此外，再无什么“天理”、“天道”独存；立法应该顺应自私自利这种人之常情，利用人们的“自为心”为统治者服务。这样就实现了天理、国法、人情三位一体的统一。这也强调立法要注重人情，但更重要的“法不外乎人情”这个命题的用意不仅在于对立法或对法的内容本身的要求，而且在于干预司法。就司法活动而言，这个命题的含义是在司法中要求做到法律与人情两相兼顾或两全，而当法与情有矛盾不能两全时，则应舍法取情，此即所谓“人情大于王法”。也就是说，“人情”在判断是非上比国法更具权威性。(P17-25)总之，天理、国法、人情综合为用便构成了古代司法审判的基本依据。
（二）“情判”的内容
1、拷讯方式
　　拷讯是古代审判中一种最基本的审讯方式，也是古代审判的一大特点。拷讯最早可以追溯到西周时期，“仲春之月……母肆掠，止狱公”肆掠即为刑讯。明人海瑞的主张，在审判中对原告被告都要“监之枷之，百端苦之”，以息刁讼。理由是：“夫人有痛之而不知畏者乎？”这种拷讯制度让民众对法律尤其是司法认识普遍与严刑峻法、刑讯逼供等“酷”的印象连在一起，这种“酷”换种说法就是“威”。（P118）通过威刑的方式让其放弃诉讼，维护社会的稳定。
对于兄弟之间的诉讼，明司法官曾有过精辟的见解：
兄弟之间，本无不和也。以和而致争，以争而致讼，以讼而致息，以息而思和。不告不知情费，无由思息也。不打不知畏楚，无由永和也。聊以十三之竹皮，用代六条之木舌。埙篪之爱，其未艾乎？
对于兄弟对簿公堂，司法官的作用就在于利用诉讼揭示、挖掘潜藏的人情，并以情断案，进行教化，实现无讼。当然，有时单靠说教不能达到效果时，便辅之以刑罚手段，使之警醒。
2、淡化是非，力求两和
　　在判决中法官一般不让诉讼的任何一方获得全胜，必须让双方均有损失感，但理足的一方损失小些，理亏的一方损失大些。即“与原告以六分理，亦必与被告以四分理；与原告以六分罪，并必与被告以四分罪，二人曲直不甚相远，可免忿激再讼。”这种“和事佬”式的判决当然是为维护“亲亲之爱”的和谐秩序，以折中、调和、妥协的方式平息纠纷，以中庸之道来处理人际关系、是非纷争，是儒家伦理文化在司法诉讼中的具体体现。
　　清朝于成龙曾审理过一则兄弟二人争死去的母亲安葬在何处的问题：
　　本案前由江夏令审断一过，判将夏氏之柩，葬后夫华姓坟上。其所根据，第一按照律文，……第二根据古礼，……本府于提审此案时，即已审度再三，原判一据律，再据礼，实无可指驳。但范念岵一片孝心，冀干母之蛊，成母之志，其心亦可嘉尚。……故有司断案，亦不可纯略迹原情。今本府为慰安孝子之心计，特取其无碍于律文者，而为而等判。夏氏尸体棺柩，依律应仍遵照原县判案，归入华姓坟墓，范姓不得争夺。但念范念岵以三十年抚养之恩，并不忍其母之失志，并不忍有父而无母，亦准予得变通办法，与华氏子康年一体斩衰三年，并仿古人魂葬之礼，另行招魂致奠，将夏氏生前衣服，附葬于范文六之墓，并许得称范夏氏。如是则律与情各不相仿，在华氏子亦可释争矣。且查律改醮之妇，虽有归后夫之家语，然使前夫家自愿收回者，在律亦并无禁止之明文。是范念岵招魂安葬之举，华氏子亦可无所用其争，且亦不必争矣。此判。(P45-47)
案件中机敏的司法官想出一个妙招，判夏氏尸棺与衣物分葬于两姓，这样就使得情法两平，纷争消除。
3、判决往往超出诉讼请求
　　官吏们的判决也经常超出法律的规定及当事人的诉讼请求范围，取重社会人情伦理风尚。如著名的“乔太守乱点鸳鸯谱”一案中，乔太守的法定职责是确定骗婚者、犯奸者的刑事、民事责任，但他却不关心这一职责，反而充当家长，在公堂上为三对青年再定婚配。所作判词：
　　“弟代姊嫁，姑伴嫂眠。爱子爱女，情在其中。一雌一雄，变出意外。移干柴近烈火，无怪其燃；以美玉配明珠，适获其偶。孙氏子因姊而得妇，搂处子不用逾墙；刘氏女因嫂得夫，怀吉士初非?玉。相悦为婚，礼以义起。所厚者薄，事可权宜。使徐雅别婿裴九之儿，许裴政改娶孙郎之配。夺人妇人也夺其妇，两家恩怨，总息风波。独乐乐不若与人乐，三对夫妻，各谐鱼水。人虽兑换，十六两原只一斤；亲是交门，五百年决非错配。以爱及爱，伊父母自作冰人；非亲是亲，我官府权作月老。已经明断，各赴良期。”
　　通篇充溢人情味而无引据律法条文之迹象，被认为是成人之美、体贴人情的典范之作。
4、判决书之风格。
国务院


中华人民共和国企业法人登记管理条例(附英文)

1988年6月3日，国务院

第一章 总 则
第一条 为建立企业法人登记管理制度，确认企业法人资格，保障企业合法权益，取缔非法经营，维护社会经济秩序，根据《中华人民共和国民法通则》的有关规定，制定本条例。
第二条 具备法人条件的下列企业，应当依照本条例的规定办理企业法人登记：
（一）全民所有制企业；
（二）集体所有制企业；
（三）联营企业；
（四）在中华人民共和国境内设立的中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业和外资企业；
（五）私营企业；
（六）依法需要办理企业法人登记的其他企业。
第三条 申请企业法人登记，经企业法人登记主管机关审核，准予登记注册的，领取《企业法人营业执照》，取得法人资格，其合法权益受国家法律保护。
依法需要办理企业法人登记的，未经企业法人登记主管机关核准登记注册，不得从事经营活动。

第二章 登记主管机关
第四条 企业法人登记主管机关（以下简称登记主管机关）是国家工商行政管理局和地方各级工商行政管理局。各级登记主管机关在上级登记主管机关的领导下，依法履行职责，不受非法干预。
第五条 经国务院或者国务院授权部门批准的全国性公司、企业集团、经营进出口业务的公司，由国家工商行政管理局核准登记注册。中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业、外资企业由国家工商行政管理局或者国家工商行政管理局授权的地方工商行政管理局核准登记注册。
全国性公司的子（分）公司，经省、自治区、直辖市人民政府或其授权部门批准设立的企业、企业集团、经营进出口业务的公司，由省、自治区、直辖市工商行政管理局核准登记注册。
其他企业，由所在市、县（区）工商行政管理局核准登记注册。
第六条 各级登记主管机关，应当建立企业法人登记档案和登记统计制度，掌握企业法人登记有关的基础信息，为发展有计划的商品经济服务。
登记主管机关应当根据社会需要，有计划地开展向公众提供企业法人登记资料的服务。

第三章 登记条件和申请登记单位
第七条 申请企业法人登记的单位应当具备下列条件：
（一）名称、组织机构和章程；
（二）固定的经营场所和必要的设施；
（三）符合国家规定并与其生产经营和服务规模相适应的资金数额和从业人员；
（四）能够独立承担民事责任；
（五）符合国家法律、法规和政策规定的经营范围。
第八条 企业办理企业法人登记，由该企业的组建负责人申请。
独立承担民事责任的联营企业办理企业法人登记，由联营企业的组建负责人申请。

第四章 登记注册事项
第九条 企业法人登记注册的主要事项：企业法人名称、住所、经营场所、法定代表人、经济性质、经营范围、经营方式、注册资金、从业人数、经营期限、分支机构。
第十条 企业法人只准使用一个名称。企业法人申请登记注册的名称由登记主管机关核定，经核准登记注册后在规定的范围内享有专用权。
申请设立中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业和外资企业应当在合同、章程审批之前，向登记主管机关申请企业名称登记。
第十一条 登记主管机关核准登记注册的企业法人的法定代表人是代表企业行使职权的签字人。法定代表人的签字应当向登记主管机关备案。
第十二条 注册资金是国家授予企业法人经营管理的财产或者企业法人自有财产的数额体现。
企业法人办理开业登记，申请注册的资金数额与实有资金不一致的，按照国家专项规定办理。
第十三条 企业法人的经营范围应当与其资金、场地、设备、从业人员以及技术力量相适应；按照国家有关规定，可以一业为主，兼营他业。企业法人应当在核准登记注册的经营范围内从事经营活动。

第五章 开业登记
第十四条 企业法人办理开业登记，应当在主管部门或者审批机关批准后三十日内，向登记主管机关提出申请；没有主管部门、审批机关的企业申请开业登记，由登记主管机关进行审查。登记主管机关应当在受理申请后三十日内，做出核准登记或者不予核准登记的决定。
第十五条 申请企业法人开业登记，应当提交下列文件、证件：
（一）组建负责人签署的登记申请书；
（二）主管部门或者审批机关的批准文件；
（三）组织章程；
（四）资金信用证明、验资证明或者资金担保；
（五）企业主要负责人的身份证明；
（六）住所和经营场所使用证明；
（七）其他有关文件、证件。
第十六条 申请企业法人开业登记的单位，经登记主管机关核准登记注册，领取《企业法人营业执照》后，企业即告成立。企业法人凭据《企业法人营业执照》可以刻制公章、开立银行帐户、签订合同，进行经营活动。
登记主管机关可以根据企业法人开展业务的需要，核发《企业法人营业执照》副本。

第六章 变更登记
第十七条 企业法人改变名称、住所、经营场所、法定代表人、经济性质、经营范围、经营方式、注册资金、经营期限，以及增设或者撤销分支机构，应当申请办理变更登记。
第十八条 企业法人申请变更登记，应当在主管部门或者审批机关批准后三十日内，向登记主管机关申请办理变更登记。
第十九条 企业法人分立、合并、迁移，应当在主管部门或者审批机关批准后三十日内，向登记主管机关申请办理变更登记、开业登记或者注销登记。

第七章 注销登记
第二十条 企业法人歇业、被撤销、宣告破产或者因其他原因终止营业，应当向登记主管机关办理注销登记。
第二十一条 企业法人办理注销登记，应当提交法定代表人签署的申请注销登记报告、主管部门或者审批机关的批准文件、清理债务完结的证明或者清算组织负责清理债权债务的文件。经登记主管机关核准后，收缴《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，收缴公章，并将注销登记情况告知其开户银行。
第二十二条 企业法人领取《企业法人营业执照》后，满六个月尚未开展经营活动或者停止经营活动满一年的，视同歇业，登记主管机关应当收缴《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，收缴公章，并将注销登记情况告知其开户银行。

第八章 公告、年检和证照管理
第二十三条 企业开业、变更名称、注销，由登记主管机关发布企业法人登记公告。 未经登记主管机关批准，其他单位不得发布企业法人登记公告。
第二十四条 企业法人登记管理实行年度检验制度。企业法人应当按照登记主管机关规定的时间提交年检报告书、资金平衡表或者资产负债表。登记主管机关应当对企业法人登记的主要事项进行审查。
第二十五条 登记主管机关核发的《企业法人营业执照》是企业法人凭证，除登记主管机关依照法定程序可以扣缴或者吊销外，其他任何单位和个人不得收缴、扣押、毁坏。
企业法人遗失《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，必须登报声明后，方可申请补领。
《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，不得伪造、涂改、出租、出借、转让、出卖和擅自复印。
第二十六条 企业法人办理开业登记、变更登记、年度检验，应当按照规定缴纳登记费、年检费。开业登记费按注册资金总额的1‰缴纳；注册资金超过一千万元的，超过部分按0．5‰缴纳；注册资金超过一亿元的，超过部分不再缴纳。登记费最低额为五十元。变更登记费、年检费的缴纳数额由国家工商行政管理局规定。

第九章 事业单位、科技性的社会团体从事经营活动的登记管理
第二十七条 事业单位、科技性的社会团体根据国家有关规定，设立具备法人条件的企业，由该企业申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《企业法人营业执照》，方可从事经营活动。
第二十八条 根据国家有关规定，实行企业化经营，国家不再核拨经费的事业单位和从事经营活动的科技性的社会团体，具备企业法人登记条件的，由该单位申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《企业法人营业执照》，方可从事经营活动。

第十章 监督管理
第二十九条 登记主管机关对企业法人依法履行下列监督管理职责：
（一）监督企业法人按照规定办理开业、变更、注销登记；
（二）监督企业法人按照登记注册事项和章程、合同从事经营活动；
（三）监督企业法人和法定代表人遵守国家法律、法规和政策；
（四）制止和查处企业法人的违法经营活动，保护企业法人的合法权益。
第三十条 企业法人有下列情形之一的，登记主管机关可以根据情况分别给予警告、罚款、没收非法所得、停业整顿、扣缴、吊销《企业法人营业执照》的处罚：
（一）登记中隐瞒真实情况、弄虚作假或者未经核准登记注册擅自开业的；
（二）擅自改变主要登记事项或者超出核准登记的经营范围从事经营活动的；
（三）不按照规定办理注销登记或者不按照规定报送年检报告书，办理年检的；
（四）伪造、涂改、出租、出借、转让、出卖或者擅自复印《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本的；
（五）抽逃、转移资金，隐匿财产逃避债务的；
（六）从事非法经营活动的。
对企业法人按照上述规定进行处罚时，应当根据违法行为的情节，追究法定代表人的行政责任、经济责任；触犯刑律的，由司法机关依法追究刑事责任。
第三十一条 登记主管机关处理企业法人违法活动，必须查明事实，依法处理，并将处理决定书面通知当事人。
第三十二条 企业法人对登记主管机关的处罚不服时，可以在收到处罚通知后十五日内向上一级登记主管机关申请复议。上级登记主管机关应当在收到复议申请之日起三十日内作出复议决定。申请人对复议决定不服的，可以在收到复议通知之日起三十日内向人民法院起诉。逾期不提出
申诉又不缴纳罚没款的，登记主管机关可以按照规定程序通知其开户银行予以划拨。
第三十三条 企业法人被吊销《企业法人营业执照》，登记主管机关应当收缴其公章，并将注销登记情况告知其开户银行，其债权债务由主管部门或者清算组织负责清理。
第三十四条 主管部门、审批机关、登记主管机关的工作人员违反本条例规定，严重失职、滥用职权、营私舞弊、索贿受贿或者侵害企业法人合法权益的，应当根据情节给予行政处分和经济处罚；触犯刑律的，由司法机关依法追究刑事责任。

第十一章 附 则
第三十五条 企业法人设立不能独立承担民事责任的分支机构，由该企业法人申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《营业执照》，在核准登记的经营范围内从事经营活动。
根据国家有关规定，由国家核拨经费的事业单位、科技性的社会团体从事经营活动或者设立不具备法人条件的企业，由该单位申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《营业执照》，在核准登记的经营范围内从事经营活动。
具体登记管理参照本条例的规定执行。
第三十六条 经国务院有关部门或者各级计划部门批准的新建企业，其筹建期满一年的，应当按照专项规定办理筹建登记。
第三十七条 本条例施行前，具备法人条件的企业，已经登记主管机关核准登记注册的，不再另行办理企业法人登记。
第三十八条 本条例由国家工商行政管理局负责解释；施行细则由国家工商行政管理局制定。
第三十九条 本条例自1988年7月1日起施行。1980年7月26日国务院发布的《中外合资经营企业登记管理办法》，1982年8月9日国务院发布的《工商企业登记管理条例》，1985年8月14日国务院批准、1985年8月25日国家工商行政管理局发布的《公司
登记管理暂行规定》同时废止。(附英文)

REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA FOR CONTROLLING THEREGISTRATION OF ENTERPRISES AS LEGAL PERSONS

Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.

Whole Document (法规全文)
REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA FOR CONTROLLING THE
REGISTRATION OF ENTERPRISES AS LEGAL PERSONS
(Adopted by the Fourth Executive Meeting of the State Council on
May 13, 1988, promulgated by Decree No. 1 of the State Council of the
People's Republic of China on June 3, 1988, and effective as of July 1,
1988)

Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1
In accordance with relevant provisions of the General Principles of the
Civil Law of the People's Republic of China, the present Regulations are
formulated with a view to establishing a system for controlling the
registration of enterprises as legal persons, confirming their status as
such, safeguarding their legitimate rights and interests, stamping out
illegal business operations, and preserving social and economic order.
Article 2
Any of the following enterprises which are qualified as legal persons
shall register as such in accordance with the relevant provisions of the
present Regulations:
(1) enterprises owned by the whole people;
(2) enterprises under collective ownership;
(3) jointly operated enterprises;
(4) Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures, Chinese-foreign contractual
joint ventures and foreign-capital enterprises established within the
territory of the People's Republic of China;
(5) privately operated enterprises;
(6) other enterprises required by the law to register as legal persons.
Article 3
Those enterprises applying for registration as legal persons shall be
given Business Licenses for Enterprises as Legal Persons and the status of
legal persons when their applications for registration have been examined
and approved by the authorities in charge of the registration of
enterprises as legal persons and their legitimate rights and interests
shall be protected by laws of the State.
Those enterprises, which are required by law to register as legal persons
but which have not gone through the procedures of examination and approval
registration by the authorities in charge of the registration of
enterprises as legal persons, shall not be allowed to engage in business
operations.

Chapter II Registration Authorities
Article 4
The authorities in charge of the registration of enterprises as legal
persons (hereinafter referred to as the registration authorities) are the
State Administration for Industry and Commerce and administrative
departments for industry and commerce at various levels. Registration
authorities at various levels shall perform their functions according to
law under the leadership of higher registration authorities and be free
from unlawful interference.
Article 5
The registration of national corporations, enterprise groups and
corporations handling import-export business set up with the approval of
the State Council or departments authorized by the State Council shall be
examined and approved by the State Administration for Industry and
Commerce. The registration of Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures,
Chinese-foreign contractual joint ventures and foreign-capital enterprises
shall be examined and approved by the State Administration for Industry
and Commerce or by local administrative departments for industry and
commerce authorized by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce.
The registration of son (or branch) companies of national corporations,
enterprises, enterprise groups or companies handling import-export trade
established with the approval of the people's governments of provinces,
autonomous regions or municipalities directly under the Central Government
or departments authorized by them shall be examined and approved by the
administrative departments for industry and commerce of the provinces,
autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central
Government. The registration of other enterprises shall be examined and
approved by the administrative departments for industry and commerce of
the cities of counties (districts) where the enterprises are located.
Article 6
Registration authorities at various levels shall institute a file of the
registration of enterprises as legal persons and a system for tabulating
statistics relating to such registration, and collect basic information
about the registration of enterprises as legal persons so as to serve the
development of a planned commodity economy. Registration authorities
shall offer, in a planned manner and according to the needs of society,
the service of providing the public with data about the registration of
enterprises as legal persons.

Chapter III Conditions for Registration and Entities to Apply for Registration
Article 7
Entities applying for registration as enterprises as legal persons must
satisfy the following conditions, i.e. having:
(1) name, organization and articles of association;
(2) fixed sites for business operations and essential facilities;
(3) funds and employees in conformity with State regulations and in line
with their scale of production, operation or service;
(4) ability to bear civil liabilities independently;
(5) a scope of business in conformity with the provisions of the relevant
laws, regulations and policies of the State.
Article 8
The application of an enterprise for registration as a legal person shall
be filed by the person responsible for establishing the enterprise.
The registration as a legal person of a jointly operated enterprise which
bears civil liabilities independently shall be applied for by the person
responsible for initiating the said enterprise.

Chapter IV Items of Registration
Article 9
The major items to be registered for an enterprise as a legal person are:
name, residence, site for business operation, legal representative,
economic nature, scope of business, mode of operation, registered capital,
number of employees, duration of operation and subdivisions.
Article 10
An enterprise as a legal person shall use only one name. The name to be
used by the enterprise as a legal person in its application for
registration shall be examined by the registration authorities and, after
it is approved and registered, the enterprise as a legal person shall
enjoy the right to the exclusive use of the registered name within a
definite limit.
Those who apply for establishing Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures,
Chinese-foreign contractual joint ventures or foreign-capital enterprises
shall apply to the registration authorities for registering the names of
the enterprises before their contracts and articles of association are
examined and approved.
Article 11
The legal representative of an enterprise as a legal person, which has
been registered after examination and approval by a registration
authority, shall be the signatory who exercises functions and powers on
behalf of the enterprise. The signature of the legal representative shall
be submitted to the registration authority for the record.
Article 12
The registered capital of an enterprise as a legal person represents the
total value of the property the State entrusts to it for operation and
management or that of the property owned by the enterprise itself.
When an enterprise as a legal person registers for starting operations,
the discrepancy between the sum of capital it applies for registration and
the sum of capital it actually possesses shall be handled in accordance
with specific regulations of the State.
Article 13
The scope of business of an enterprise as a legal person shall be in
harmony with its capital, sites, equipment, employees and technical force.
It may focus on one line of business as its main operation while engaging
in other operations simultaneously in accordance with relevant regulations
of the State. An enterprise as a legal person shall engage in operations
within the scope of business as approved in registration.

Chapter V Registration for Starting Operations
Article 14
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply to a registration authority
for registration for starting operations within 30 days after the approval
of the department in charge of it or that of an authority for examination
and approval. For an enterprise which does not have a department in charge
or authority for examination and approval, its application for
registration for starting operations shall be examined by a registration
authority. The registration authority shall make a decision of approval or
disapproval of the application for registration within 30 days after
receiving it.
Article 15
An enterprise as a legal person shall submit the following papers when
applying for registration for starting operations:
(1) an application for registration signed by the person responsible for
its establishment;
(2) the document of approval issued by the department in charge or the
authority for examination and approval;
(3) its articles of association;
(4) a certificate of its credit worthiness, a certificate of the
verification of its capital or a guarantee for its capital;
(5) a certificate of the identity of the principal responsible person of
the enterprise;
(6) a certificate of the right to use the residence and site for
operation;
(7) other relevant papers and certificates.
Article 16
When the application filed by an entity for starting operations as an
enterprise as a legal person has been examined and approved by a
registration authority and a Business Licenses for Enterprises as a Legal
Person is received, the enterprise shall be considered as established. The
enterprises as a legal person may henceforth have its official seal made,
open a bank account, sign contracts and conduct business operations by
dint of its Business License.
The registration authority may, after a check-up, issue duplicates of the
Business License, if the enterprise as a legal person needs them for its
business operations.

Chapter VI Changes in Registration
Article 17
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply for making changes in its
registration whenever it changes its name, residence, site, legal
representative, economic nature, scope of business, mode of operation,
registered capital or duration of operation and whenever it increases or
disbands its branches.
Article 18
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply to the registration authority
for making changes in its registration within 30 days after the changes
are approved by the department in charge or by the authority for
examination and approval.
Article 19
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply to the registration authority
for making changes in its registration, or for registration for starting
operations or for cancelling its registration, whenever it is split up,
or merged with others or moved elsewhere, within 30 days after these
changes are approved by the department in charge or by the authority for
examination and approval.

Chapter VII Cancellation of Registration
Article 20
An enterprise as a legal person shall go through the procedures for
cancelling its registration with the registration authority when it closes
down, is dissolved, declares bankruptcy or terminates its business
operations for other reasons.
Article 21
Whenever an enterprise as a legal person is to cancel its registration, it
must submit an application signed by its legal representative, a document
of approval issued by the department in charge or by the authority for
examination and approval, a certificate showing the completion of the
clearing up of its liabilities, or a document showing that a liquidation
organization will be responsible for clearing up its creditor's rights and
liabilities. The registration authority, after examining and approving the
application, shall recall the Business License for Enterprise as a Legal
Person, duplicates of the License, take over the official seal of the
enterprise, and notify the banks at which it has opened an account of the
cancellation of its registration.
Article 22
An enterprise as a legal person, which fails to start operations 6 months
after receiving its Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person or
which has ceased its operations for a year, shall be regarded as having
closed down, and the registration authority shall recall its Business
License for Enterprises as a Legal Person, duplicates of the License, take
over its official seal and notify the banks at which it has opened an
account of the cancellation of its registration.

Chapter VIII Announcement, Annual Check-up and Control of Certi- ficates
Article 23
The registration authority shall issue registration announcements whenever
an enterprise as a legal person starts operations, changes its name or
cancels its registration. No other organ shall be entitled to issue such
announcements without the approval of the registration authority.
Article 24
A system for conducting annual check-up shall be instituted to administer
the registration of enterprises as legal persons. An enterprise as a legal
person shall submit its annual check-up report, its balance sheet or
statement of assets and liabilities to the registration authority at the
time it prescribes. The registration authority shall check up the major
items contained in the registration of the enterprise as a legal person.
Article 25
The Business License for Enterprises as a Legal Person issued by the
registration authority is the certificate of an enterprise as a legal
person. Except the registration authority, which may withhold or cancel it
in accordance with the legal procedures, no other organ or individual is
entitled to take over, detain or destroy it. An enterprise as a legal
person, which has lost its Business License for Enterprise as a Legal
Person or duplicates of the License, must announce the loss in a newspaper
before it can apply for a replacement.
The Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person and its duplicates
may not be forged, altered, leased, lent, sold or reproduced without
permission.
Article 26
An enterprise as a legal person shall pay registration and annual check-up
fees according to the rules when it registers for starting operations and
applies for making changes in its registration and when it receives the
annual check-up. The fees to be charged on registration for starting
operations shall be 0.1% of the sum of the enterprise's registered
capital; in cases where the registered capital exceeds 10 million yuan,
the fees to be charged on the portion in excess of the said sum shall be
0.05% of it; in cases where the registered capital exceeds 100 million
yuan, no fees shall be charged on the portion in excess of the said sum.
The minimum registration fee shall be 50 yuan. Fees to be charged on
making changes in the registration and conducting the annual check-up
shall be prescribed by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce.

Chapter IX Control of the Registration of Business Operations by Institutions and Scientific and Technological Public Organizations
Article 27
When institutions or scientific and technological public organizations
establish enterprises qualified as legal persons in line with relevant
regulations of the state, the applications for registration shall be filed
by the enterprises. They may engage in business operations only after
their applications for registration have been approved by the registration
authorities and after they have received their respective Business
Licenses for Enterprise as a Legal Person.
Article 28
Institutions, which are run like enterprises in accordance with relevant
regulations of the State and which no longer receive operating funds from
the State, or scientific and technological public organizations which are
established for business operations, shall apply for registration if they
are qualified to be enterprises as legal persons. They may engage in
business operations only after their applications have been approved by
the registration authorities and they have received their respective
Business Licenses for Enterprise as a Legal Person.

Chapter X Supervision and Control
Article 29
The registration authorities shall exercise the following functions of
supervision and control over enterprises as legal persons according to
law:
(1) supervising the registration for starting operations, the application
for making changes and the cancellation of registration by enterprises as
legal persons according to regulations;
(2) supervising the conduct of business operations by enterprises as legal
persons in line with the items of registration, articles of association
and contracts;
(3) supervising the compliance of enterprises as legal persons and their
legal representatives with laws, regulations and policies of the State;
(4) stopping, investigating or dealing with illegal business operations of
enterprises as legal persons; protecting their legitimate rights and
interests.
Article 30
The registration authority may, in light of the circumstances, penalize an
enterprise as legal person by warning, fine, confiscation of illegal
earnings, suspension of business for consideration, or withholding or
revoking the Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person, if it is
involved in any of the following case:
(1) concealing the true situation and resorting to deception in the course
of registration or starting operations before the approval of its
registration;
(2) altering major items in the registration without permission or
engaging in business operations beyond the scope of business as approved
in registration;
(3) failing to cancel registration according to the rules or failing to
submit the annual check-up report or receive the annual check-up;
(4) forging, altering, leasing, lending, transferring, selling or
reproducing the Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person or its
duplicates without permission;
(5) withdrawing or transferring capital, concealing assets or dodging
liabilities;
(6) engaging in illegal business operations.
While penalizing an enterprise as a legal person in line with the above
provisions, the registration authority shall investigate its legal
representative's administrative and economic responsibilities according to
the seriousness of the violations of the law; judicial organs shall
investigate the criminal responsibilities of those who have violated the
criminal law.
Article 31
The registration authority shall ascertain the facts and act according to
law when dealing with the illegal activities of an enterprise as a legal
person and notify the parties concerned of its decision in writing.
Article 32
When an enterprise as a legal person disagrees with the penalty meted out
by the registration authority, it may appeal within 15 days after
receiving the notice of penalty, to the immediate higher registration
authority for reconsideration. The higher registration authority shall
make a reconsideration decision within 30 days after receiving the appeal
for reconsideration. The enterprise may file a suit in a people's court
within 30 days after receiving the notice of reconsideration if it
disagrees with the reconsideration decision. The registration authority
may, in accordance with the prescribed procedures, ask the bank at which
the enterprise has an account to transfer from its account the sum to be
fined or confiscated as penalty, if it fails to appeal or to pay the fine
or the confiscated sum at the expiry of the prescribed period.
Article 33
When an enterprise as a legal person has its business license revoked, the
registration authority shall take over its official seal and notify the
bank at which it has an account of the cancellation of its registration,
and the department in charge or a liquidation organization shall be
responsible for settling its creditor's rights and liabilities.
Article 34
Any functionary of the department in charge, the authority for examination
and approval or of the registration authority, who has violated the
present Regulations, neglected his duties to a serious extent, abused his
powers, practised graft and embezzlement, extorted and taken bribes or
encroached on the legitimate rights and interests of an enterprise as a
legal person, shall be given administrative or economic penalty in light
of the circumstances; the judicial organ shall investigate, according to
law, his criminal responsibility, if the violates the criminal law.

Chapter XI Supplementary Provisions
Article 35
When an enterprise as a legal person establishes a branch which is
incapable of bearing civil liability independently, the registration of
the branch shall be applied for by the enterprise. The branch shall
receive a Business License after the application is approved by the
registration authority and may engage in business operations within the
scope of business as approved in registration.
In accordance with relevant State regulations, administrative institutions
depending on State funding or scientific and technological social bodies
must apply for registration if they engage in business operations or
establish enterprises not qualified as legal persons. They shall receive
Business Licenses after their applications are approved by the
registration authorities and may engage in business operations within the
scope of business as approved in registration.
The specific control of the registration involved shall be enforced with
reference to the provisions of the present Regulations.
Article 36
For new enterprises to be established with the approval of relevant
departments of the State Council or planning departments at various
levels, if their preparations have been under way for more than 1 year,
applications for the registration of the establishment shall be filed
according to specific regulations.

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